The Fascinating History of Drone Warfare

The Fascinating History of Drone Warfare Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have allowed U.S. military forces to turn the tide in numerous overseas conflicts as well as in the fight against terrorism without risking military personnel. They have a storied past that dates back centuries. While the history of drones is fascinating, not everyone is a fan of these stealthy, unmanned aircraft. While drones are a big hit among hobbyists, providing a wonderful vantage point from which to capture breathtaking aerial video footage, some people are understandably worried about the invasion of privacy as the craft sail over private property. Not only that, as evolving technology becomes increasingly sophisticated, lethal, and accessible to the masses theres a rising concern that drones can and will be used against us by our enemies. Tesla’s Vision Inventor Nikola Telsa was the first to foresee the coming of militarized unmanned vehicles. In fact, they were just one of several predictions he made while speculating on potential uses for a remote control system he was developing. In the 1898 patent â€Å"Method of and Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vessels or Vehicles† (No. 613,809), Telsa described, with remarkable prescience, the wide range of possibilities for his new radio-control technology: The invention which I have described will prove useful in many ways. Vessels or vehicles of any suitable kind may be used, as life, despatch, or pilot boats or the like, or for carrying letters packages, provisions, instruments, objects†¦ but the greatest value of my invention will result from its effect upon warfare and armaments, for by reason of its certain and unlimited destructiveness it will tend to bring about and maintain permanent peace among nations. About three months after filing his patent, Tesla gave the world a glimpse of the possibilities of radio wave technology at the annual Electrical Exhibition held at Madison Square Garden. Before a stunned audience, Tesla demonstrated a control box that transmitted radio signals used to maneuver a toy boat through a pool of water. Outside of a handful of inventors whod already been experimenting with them, few people even knew about the existence of radio waves at the time.   The Miltary Enlists Unmanned Aircraft   Drones have been used in a variety of military capacities: early efforts at eye-in-the-sky reconnaissance, â€Å"aerial torpedoes† during World War II, and as armed aircraft in the war in Afghanistan. Even as far back as Teslas time, his contemporaries in the armed forces were beginning to see how remotely-controlled vehicles might be used to gain certain strategic advantages. For example, during the Spanish-American War of 1898, the U.S. military was able to deploy camera-equipped kites to take some of the first aerial surveillance photographs of enemy fortifications. (An even earlier example of military use of unmanned aircraft- albeit not radio-controlled- took place during an 1849 attack on Venice by Austrian forces using balloons packed with explosives.) Improving the Prototype: Directive Gyroscopes While the idea of unmanned craft showed definite promise for combat applications, it wasn’t until around World War I that military forces began to experiment with ways to further Tesla’s initial vision and attempt to integrate radio-controlled systems into various types of unmanned aircraft. One of the earliest efforts was the 1917 Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, a costly and elaborate collaboration between the U.S. Navy and inventors Elmer Sperry and Peter Hewitt to develop a radio-controlled airplane that could be used as a pilotless bomber or flying torpedo. Perfecting a gyroscope system that could automatically keep the aircraft stabilized became crucial. The auto-pilot system that Hewitt and Sperry eventually came up with featured a gyroscopic stabilizer, a directive gyroscope, a barometer for altitude control, radio-controlled wing and tail features, and a gearing device to measure the distance flown. Theoretically, these improvements would enable the aircraft to fly a pre-set course to a target where it would then either drop a bomb or simply crash, exploding its payload. The Automatic Airplane designs were encouraging enough that the Navy supplied seven Curtiss N-9 seaplanes to be outfitted with the technology and poured an additional $200,000 into research and development. Ultimately, after several failed launches and wrecked prototypes, the project was scrapped but not before completing one successful flying bomb launch that proved the concept was at least plausible. The Kettering Bug While the Navy teamed up with Hewitt and Sperry, the U.S. Army commissioned another inventor, General Motor’s head of research Charles Kettering, to work on a separate â€Å"aerial torpedo† project. They also tapped Sperry to develop the torpedo’s control and guidance system and even brought in Orville Wright as an aviation consultant. That collaboration resulted in the Kettering Bug, an auto-piloted biplane programmed to carry a bomb directly to a pre-determined target.   The Bug had a range of about 40 miles, flew at a top speed nearing 50 mph, and held a payload of 82 kilograms (180  pounds) of explosives. It was also equipped with a counter programmed to count the total number of engine revolutions necessary for the craft to reach its predetermined target (allowing for variables of wind speed and direction that were figured into the calculation when the counter was set). Once the requisite number of engine revolutions was reached, two things happened: a cam fell into place shutting down the engine and the wing bolts retracted, causing the wings to fall off. This sent the Bug into its final trajectory, where it detonated on impact.   In 1918, the Kettering Bug completed a successful test flight, prompting the Army to place a large order for their production. However, the Kettering Bug suffered a similar fate to the Navys Automatic Airplane and was never used in combat, partly due to concerns that the system might malfunction and detonate a payload prior to reaching its target in hostile territory. While both projects were scrapped for their initial purpose, in retrospect, the Automatic Airplane and Kettering Bug played significant roles in the development of modern-day cruise missiles. From Target Practice to Spy in the Sky The post-World War I period saw the British Royal Navy take the early lead in the development of radio-controlled unmanned aircraft. These British UAVs (target drones) were programmed to mimic the movements of enemy aircraft and were employed during anti-aircraft training for target practice. One drone often employed for this purpose- a radio-controlled version of the de Havilland Tiger Moth airplane known as the DH.82B Queen Bee- is thought to be the source from which the term â€Å"drone† hatched.   The initial headstart the British enjoyed was relatively short-lived. In 1919, Reginald Denny, a serviceman late of the British Royal Flying Corps, emigrated to the United States, where he opened a model plane shop. Dennys enterprise went on to become the Radioplane Company, the first large-scale producer of drones. After having demonstrated a number of prototypes to the U.S. Army, in 1940, Denny got a huge break, procuring a contract for the manufacture of Radioplane OQ-2 drones. By the end of World War II, the company had supplied the Army and Navy with 15,000 drone craft. A Hollywood Sidenote In addition to drones, the Radioplane Company had the distinction of launching the career of one of Hollywoods most legendary starlets. In 1945, Denny’s friend (film star and future President of the United States) Ronald Reagan sent military photographer David Conover to capture snapshots of factory workers assembling Radioplanes for the Army’s weekly magazine. One of the employees he photographed was a young woman named Norma Jean Baker. Baker later quit her assembly job and went on to model for Conover at other photoshoots. Eventually, after changing her name to Marilyn Monroe, her career really took off.   Combat Drones The World War II era also marked the introduction of drones in combat operations. In fact, the conflict between the Allied and Axis powers revitalized the development of aerial torpedoes, which could now be made to be more accurate and destructive. One particularly devastating weapon was Nazi Germany’s V-1 rocket, a.k.a, the Buzz Bomb. This flying bomb, the brainchild of brilliant German rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, was designed to hit urban targets and incur civilian casualties. It was guided by a gyroscopic autopilot system that helped carry a 2,000-pound warhead upward of 150 miles. As the first wartime cruise missile, the Buzz Bomb was responsible for killing 10,000 civilians and injuring around 28,000 more. After World War II, the U.S. military started repurposing target drones for reconnaissance missions. The first unmanned aircraft to undergo such a conversion was the Ryan Firebee I, which in 1951 demonstrated the ability to stay aloft for two hours while reaching an altitude of 60,000 feet. Converting the Ryan Firebee into a reconnaissance platform led to the development of the Model 147 FireFly and Lightning Bug series, both of which were used extensively during the Vietnam War. During the height of the Cold War, the U.S. military turned its focus toward stealthier spy aircraft, a notable example being the Mach 4 Lockheed D-21. Attack of the Armed Drone The notion of armed drones (as opposed to guided missiles) being used for battle purposes didnt really come into play until the 21st century. The most suitable candidate was the Predator RQ-1 manufactured by General Atomics. First tested and put into service in 1994 as a surveillance drone, the Predator RQ-1 was capable of traveling a distance of 400 nautical miles and could remain airborne for 14 hours straight. Its most significant advantage, however, was that it could be controlled from a distance of thousands of miles via satellite link. On October 7, 2001, armed with laser-guided Hellfire missiles, a Predator drone launched the first-ever combat strike by a remotely piloted aircraft in Kandahar, Afghanistan in an effort to neutralize suspected Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar. While the mission failed to take out its intended target, the event marked the dawn of a new era of militarized drones. Since then, unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) such as the Predator and General Atomics’ larger and more capable MQ-9 Reaper have completed thousands of missions, sometimes with unintentional consequences. While  2016 statistics released by President Obama revealed that 473 strikes had accounted for between 2,372 and 2,581 combatant deaths since 2009, according to a 2014 report in The Guardian, the civilian death toll resulting from drone strikes was, at the time, in the neighborhood of 6,000. Sources Ackermann, Spencer. 41 Men Targeted but 1,147 People Killed: US Drone Strikes- the facts on the Ground. The Guardian, November 24, 2014Shane, Scott. Drone Strike Statistics Answer Few Questions and Raise Many. The New York Times, July 3, 2016Evans, Nicholas D. â€Å"Military Gadgets: How Advanced Technology Is Transforming Todays Battlefield...and Tomorrows.† Prentiss Hall, 2003

How has the exclusionary rule affected policing Research Paper

How has the exclusionary rule affected policing - Research Paper Example This shows why the congress intents to make distinction as to the necessity for search warrant in the searching of private property in the enforcement of the prohibition act. Exclusionary Rule is a lawful principle in the United State under the law of the constitution. It holds that evidence gathered or analyzed in manipulation of the defendant’s constitutional rights is t times inadmissible for prosecution of a criminal in a law court. This rule can be an example of a prophylactic rule, which is formulated by the judiciary to safeguard a right of the constitution. I think this rule only protects the guilty. The exclusionary rule bars the government from making use o the evidence collected in the violation of the constitution of the United States. This rule is biased as it applies to proof got fro and irrational search or seizure in violation of the fourth amendment (Clancy, 2008). The fourth amendment prohibits or denounces searches and seizures as unreasonable in a manner in which will conserve individual rights and public interests. In addition, the Supreme Court states that under the fourth amendment to the constitution, police officers should get search warrants to carry out searches and seizures unless their actions fall within a few specifically and well-drawn exceptions. This rule is of the view that when an individual collects any evidence that is illegal, the court cannot accept it as proof against the suspect in question. In relation to policing, the exclusionary rule is best understood by incorporating the established laws and the economics phenomena: section bias, principal-agent problems, moral hazard, and violence through substitution. Effects of exclusionary rules on policing The fourth amendment on the exclusionary rules protects the â€Å"right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures,† and specifies procedural safeguards to that end. with this rule in pl ace, it means that the police force has no right to search people if they feel their security is threatened or unless it is in good faith. The police has very little it can do in case it is looking for evidence against a suspect. The police force can choose to ignore all suspicious happening in its area of operation though it is not in line with the oath of office to overlook public misconduct. This is because the rule is frustrating. The exclusionary rule has a beneficial influence on police. It creates genuine incentive for police departments to educate their members in the constitutional rights of suspected persons. All people have equal treatment. This is because a suspect can only be a criminal after proving guilty. This means that the law protects them from harassment. The police force is good at harassing individuals just because they are after evidence. By enacting the exclusionary rule, all police teams will learn to appreciate human space. Through training that all the pol ice forces will offer, there will be a good policing unit because every suspect will be handled like a worthy human being. Policing is a government unit with an obligation to provide internal security to the citizens. The use of exclusionary rule will help this governmental unit observe its finances. This is because an police misconduct attracts a fine. This means that if the police officers carry out an operation

Writting paper- Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Writting paper- - Essay Example The Signs and symptoms of the early stages of cervical cancer may be completely asymptomatic. Vaginal bleeding, contact bleeding or a vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen, lungs or elsewhere. Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, and single swollen leg, heavy bleeding from the vagina, leaking of urine from the vagina and bone fractures (Kumar et al. 2007). Numerous studies of the epidemiology of cervical cancer have shown strong associations with religious, marital and sexual patterns. Although it is well established that women with multiple partners and early ages at first intercourse are at high risk, less is known about how these factors interact or how risk is affected by specific sexual characteristics. Recent studies indicate that number of steady partners and frequent intercourse at early ages may further enhance risk, supporting hypotheses regarding a vulnerable period of the cervix and a need for repeated exposure to an infectious agent. It is now widely accepted that HPV is the major infectious etiological agent, but whether other infectious agents play supportive or interactive roles is unclear. Other speculative risk factors for cervical cancer include cigarette smoking, oral contraceptive usage and certain nutritional deficiencies, but again it is not clear whether these factors operate independently from HPV. Although cervical cancer incidence trends correlate with the population prevalence of various venereally transmitted agents, it is not certain how disease rates are affected by other potential risk factors which have changed during recent time (e.g., exposure to HPV, sexual behavior, cigarette smoking). In addition, a number of recent

Hewlett Packard Case Study

Hewlett Packard Case Study Hewlett-Packard or HP is an American multination information technology corporation that that sells hardware, software and other related business services. The product line of HP includes a wide range such as PCs, servers, software, imagining products and scanners just to name a few. Hewlett-Packard also provides services and consulting business around its products and partner products. In 2013 under Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard was the world’s second biggest PC vendor. But with so many product lines and options for such a big company such as Hewlett-Packard what problem would it run into? This issue is this would cause a high cost of design manufacture, and introduce a new product, feature, or option exceed the additional revenue it is likely to generate. Not to mention this also what costs would be related with too little or too much inventory of such a product. You also want to consider the additional supply chain intricacy along with how does this all effect the customer satisfaction. Kathy Chou who is vice president of Worldwide Commercial Sales, responsible for growing HP’s worldwide commercial business through direct and indirect channels, said â€Å"While revenue grew year over year, our profits were eroded due to unplanned operational cost,† She later stated that â€Å"As product variety grew, our forecasting accuracy suffered, and we ended up with excesses of some products and shortages of others.† Constantly growing product variety would need to meet the increasing customer needs was the mode HP took. The problem at hand is was between marketing and operations. Marketing and sales always wanted more, more SKUs, more features, and more configurations where as supply chain mangers always wanted less, less to forecast, less inventory and less complexity to manage. Analysis and Evaluation Hewlett-Packard has always been within the top 5 of Vendor market share over that last 10 years, as you can see from the chart below of its Global laptop market share by units, percent from 2006-2013. Global laptop market share by units, percent (2006-2013) Rank 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 20131 1 Dell 15.9 HP 18.1 HP 18.2 HP 19.1 HP 17.9 HP 16.6 HP 16.1 Lenovo 16.9 2 HP 15.9 Dell 14.2 Dell 14.1 Acer 12.9 Acer 13.9 Lenovo 12.5 Lenovo 14.9 HP 16.2 3 Acer 7.6 Acer 9.7 Acer 10.6 Dell 12.1 Dell 12.0 Dell 11.7 Dell 10.7 Dell 11.6 4 Lenovo 7.0 Lenovo 7.4 Lenovo 7.5 Lenovo 8.0 Lenovo 10.9 Acer 10.8 Acer 10.2 Acer 8.1 5 Toshiba 3.8 Toshiba 4.0 Toshiba 4.6 Toshiba 5.0 Asus 5.4 Asus 5.7 Asus 6.9 Asus 6.3 Others 49.8 46.5 44.9 42.8 40.0 42.8 41.2 40.8 If HP wanted to stay on top each and every year it would need an answer, a tool, a way to fix all problems at hand and continue to improve each and every year. Recommendations HP wouldn’t be anything if it didn’t innovate and Kathy Chou was fully aware of this. With the rising cost and inefficiency associated with managing millions of products and configurations this problems â€Å"took their toll† she stated which soon she followed with â€Å"and we have no idea how to solve it.† So what would it take to solve these issues? HP would need a tool that would use a procedure or formula for solving a problem. HP combined a team within its company which would consist of HP Business Group, HP labs and HP Strategy Planning and Modeling and also individuals from a handful of consultancies and universities in order to work on the problems. Over the year the team would produced an analytically driven process for evaluating new products, created a tool for prioritizing existing products in a portfolio and developed an algorithm that solves the problem many times fast than previous technologies, which advancing the theory and practice of ne twork optimization. With all the hard work done over the years the team would be reward in 2009 with an Edelman award (worlds leading prize for excellence in operations research practices) in developing what was called a revenue coverage optimization (RCO). This tool would allow HP to offer customers significantly improved service and at the same time save the company tons of money in improved efficiencies. Once this tool was implemented, HP would be improved customer service and saved the company a lot of money. Also this improved efficiency with HP business with their customers. References: Turban, Efraim, and Jay E. Aronson. Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001. Print. Hewlett-Packard (HP). What Is ? Web. 14 Nov. 2014. . Executive Biography. HP. Web. 14 Nov. 2014. . Gartner Says PC Vendors Experienced a Happy Holiday Season with Fourth Quarter Worldwide Shipments Increasing 12 Percent. Gartner Press Release. January 14, 2004. Questions for the Case When offering to many product lines and options that a big company such as HP might face are A high cost of design, manufacture, and introduce a new product, feature, or option exceed the additional revenue it is likely to generate The cost associated with too much or too little inventory for such a product, not to mention additional supply chain complexity, and how does all that impact customer satisfaction. The possible conflict between marketing and operations is that marketing and sales always wanted more, more SKUs, more features, more configurations where as supply chain mangers always wanted less, less to forecast, less inventory and less complexity to manage. HP combined a team within which would consist of HP Business Group, HP labs and HP strategy Planning and Modeling and also individuals from a handful of consultancies and universities. Produced an analytically driven process for evaluating new products Created a tool for prioritizing existing products in a portfolio Developed an algorithm that solves the problem many times fast than previous technologies, which advancing the theory and practice of network optimization. Whatis.com defines algorithm as a procedure or formula for solving a problem. An HP Senior Fellow Robert Tarjan has developed algorithms useful in everything from improving chip design to routing telephone calls, from optimizing deliveries in transportation networks to improving searches of large data sets. A software tool Revenue Coverage Optimization (RCO) was been developed that allowed HP to offer customers significantly improved service and at the same time save the company tons of money in improved efficiencies. This tool in 2009 won the Franz Edelman Award, the worlds leading prize for excellence in operations research practices. Robert Tarjan has received such major national and international awards as the ACM Turing Award, known as the â€Å"Nobel Prize† of computing, the Nevanlinna Prize and most recently, the Blaise Pascal Medal in Mathematics and Computer Science. References: Algorithm. What Is ? Web. 14 Nov. 2014. . Robert Tarjan. HP Labs. Web. 14 Nov. 2014. . The benefits HP gained from implementation of this model over all resulted in improved customer service and saved the company a lot of money. Also this improved efficiency with HP business with their customers.

Robotics :: essays research papers

Two years ago, the Chrysler corporation completely gutted its Windsor, Ontario, car assembly plant and within six weeks had installed an entirely new factory inside the building. It was a marvel of engineering. When it came time to go to work, a whole new work force marched onto the assembly line. There on opening day was a crew of 150 industrial robots. Industrial robots don't look anything like the androids from sci-fi books and movies. They don't act like the evil Daleks or a fusspot C-3P0. If anything, the industrial robots toiling on the Chrysler line resemble elegant swans or baby brontosauruses with their fat, squat bodies, long arched necks and small heads. An industrial robot is essentially a long manipulator arm that holds tools such as welding guns or motorized screwdrivers or grippers for picking up objects. The robots working at Chrysler and in numerous other modern factories are extremely adept at performing highly specialized tasks - one robot may spray paint car part s while another does spots welds while another pours radioactive chemicals. Robots are ideal workers: they never get bored and they work around the clock. What's even more important, they're flexible. By altering its programming you can instruct a robot to take on different tasks. This is largely what sets robots apart from other machines; try as you might you can't make your washing machine do the dishes. Although some critics complain that robots are stealing much-needed jobs away from people, so far they've been given only the dreariest, dirtiest, most soul-destroying work. The word robot is Slav in origin and is related to the words for work and worker. Robots first appeared in a play, Rossum's Universal Robots, written in 1920 by the Czech playwright, Karel Capek. The play tells of an engineer who designs man-like machines that have no human weakness and become immensely popular. However, when the robots are used for war they rebel against their human masters. Though industrial robots do dull, dehumanizing work, they are nevertheless a delight to watch as they crane their long necks, swivel their heads and poke about the area where they work. They satisfy "that vague longing to see the human body reflected in a machine, to see a living function translated into mechanical parts", as one writer has said. Just as much fun are the numerous "personal" robots now on the market, the most popular of which is HERO, manufactured by Heathkit.

Best solution for a suburb having frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary

Assume that you are living in suburb which has frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary. What do you think is the best solution in long run and short run? Do you prefer to support CPTED and/or reactive approaches which involves police, court and other activities? Answer: In my view, for a suburb having frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary the best solution in long run or short run can come through CPTED (Crime prevention through environmental design) alone as it focuses on behavioural psychology and relationships between people and the environment.In case a crime has already occurred a reactive investigation involving police, courts and correctional facilities has to necessarily follow but true prevention cannot succeed without involving people. It is an accepted fact that physical deterrent is the best method for prevention of crimes. To this end in case of a suburb of the kind assumed we have to begin by involving people and by consensus limit the points for entry a nd exit; and at the same time block the other points so that no entry or exit is possible save the points agreed to by the residents.Next step would be arranging round the clock vigil of these points of entry and exit to ensure that every visitor is recorded with his identification. Residents can share the costs or they can volunteer by rotation to perform the duties depending on the economic state of the suburb. Residents may also be encouraged and educated to install burglar alarms, particularly for the households which are left locked or where children or the aged or the sick stay alone for long hours.To ensure monitoring and continuity of preventive vigilance by the residents formal and informal meetings of larger and smaller groups will need to be held with brain storming on the security perceptions and maintaining crimelessness of the suburb. Such measures supported by the ideology behind CPTED would go a long way in prevention of crimes in the suburb in question.

American Revolution - Summary Essay example - 939 Words

1760- King George takes the throne of England. 1763- French and Indian War Ends. Canada and land east of the Mississippi River is added to Great Britiains Empire. 1765- The Stamp Act is passed. The Stamp Act was passed as a means to pay for British troops on the American frontier. The colonists were the ones paying for the troops and they violently protested the Act. 1766- The Stamp Act is repealed. 1768- British troops arrive in Boston to enforce laws. 1770- Four workers are shot by British troops stationed in Boston. The American Patriots labeled the killings The Boston Massacre. 1773- Massachusetts patriots dressed as Mohawk Indians protest the British Tea Act by dumping crates of tea into the Boston Harbor.†¦show more content†¦On October 19, 1781, the British General, Lord Cornwallis is forced to retreat to a the Virginian peninsula Yorktown. The French Navy surrounds the peninsula with ships, while the Americans soldiers chase the British by foot. Cornwallis is forced to surrender and the Americans win the Revolutionary War. 1781- A peace treaty is signed between Great Britain and the United States, and Britain surrenders the Colonies to the Americans. Causes of the American Revolution The Boston Massacre was an encounter on March 5, 1770, that was five years before the American Revolution between British troops and a group of citizens of Boston that were then in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. British troops were quartered in the city to discourage demonstrations. As a result of constant harassment by the citizens, a squad of British soldiers that had been struck by snow and ice balls with rocks inside thrown during a demonstration, fired into the crowd, killing five men. The eight soldiers and their commanding officer were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams, later president of the United States, and Josiah Quincy. Two of the soldiers were declared guilty of manslaughter, and the others, including the officer, were acquitted. The incident was skillfully exploited by the American patriot Samuel Adams to create anti-British sentiment in the colonies. After the incident the patriots of Massachusetts Bay were more and moreShow MoreRelatedEssay Chapter 5 t he American Revolution Summary1726 Words   |  7 PagesCHAPTER 5 The American Revolution: From Elite Protest To Popular Revolt, 1763-1783 SUMMARY This chapter covers the years that saw the colonies emerge as an independent nation. The colonial rebellion began as a protest on the part of the gentry, but military victory required that thousands of ordinary men and women dedicate themselves to the ideals of republicanism. I. 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